Giáo trình Basics of english lexicology - Trường Đại học Đại Nam

DAI NAM UNIVERSITY
FACULTY OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES 
*****
 BASICS 
OF 
 ENGLISH LEXICOLOGY
HANOI - 2017
TO THE STUDENTS
This booklet Basics of English Lexicology is edited from the Lectures on Lexicology of the Faculty of English, Hanoi Open University. As the title indicates, the book. contains the fundamentals of English lexicology which focus on three main aspects: word structure and formation (composition), word meanings (semantics) and set expressions (phraseology). At the end of the book are review questions which the students should address to consolidate what they have studied.
The contents of the book are supposed to take 30 class hours (2 credits). The book consists of four lectures, each referring to different subject matters so the students should manage their time in such a way that they can cover all the contents within the limit of time.
When using the book you should be aware of the fact that its contents are just basics of English lexicology. You are strongly advised to read extra materials on the subject and do more exercises to expand your understanding you have obtained from the book.
Hopefully, you will enjoy learning from the book and be able to employ your lexical skills for effective communication and to find numerous topics for research.
Dai Nam University 
Hanoi, August 2017
Lecture I:	INTRODUCTION
I. LEXICOLOGY
+ (Greek . 'lexis' = word +'logos'= learning )
- a science / study which deals with words, morphemes and word groups.
- a science which studies and describes systematically the vocabulary of a given language.
+ consists of 5 essential branches :
1. Word structure and formation
2. Semiology (semantic structure of a word)
3. Phraseology (set expressions, word combinations, idioms, proverbs, etc.).
4. Etymology (history and origin of words)
5. Lexicography (dictionary compiling)
+ Considered from different angles, it falls into:
1. General lexicology
2. Special lexicology
3. Historical lexicology (diachronic aspect)
4. Descriptive lexicology (synchronic aspect)
II. LEXICOLOGY IN RELATION TO
+ phonology (stress and juncture; phoneme and morpheme; homonyms)
+ grammar(gram.meaning+lexical meaning; gram.functions, word structure + formation)
+ stylistics (stylistic aspect, synonyms, antonyms)
III. SOME NOTIONS
+ Paradigm and syntagm
- Paradigm - ordered series of forms / comparable elements at a particular place in the structure. They are formed by means of inflections / endings.
student 	 go
students 	goes
student's 	went
students' 	gone
going
- Syntagm - word / phrase forming a syntactic unit or elements forming serial structures at a given level in a linear stretch of writing.
SVA 	Mary is in the garden.
SVC 	Mary is kind.
SVO 	 Mary has got a new bicycle.
SVOA 	Mary put the place on the table.
SVOC 	John thought Mary exceptionally clever.
SVOO 	Mary gave me expensive presents.
SV(A) 	Mary laughed (heartily).
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Lecture II:	WORD STRUCTURE AND FORMATION
I. Word structure
+ Word: an independent language unit which has both sound and spelling forms and is capable to form a sentence by itself.
+ Morphemes:- occur in speech as parts of words, not independently, although a word may consist of a single morpheme.
-are the smallest indivisible meaningful language unit- (cf. phonemes).
 Morpheme
	 Root M Affixal M( bound )
free M bound M gram/functional M derivational M
boy	terrible
table	terror	(inflections)	 prefix infix suffix
terrorize	girl open	unkind salesman kindly
include	girls opens	mislead fisherman leader
exclude	 sportsman
conclude	 washerwoman
 doomsday
 Word
 Simple Derived Compound
 (R) ( R+A ) ( R+R )
 heart hearty sweetheart
II. Word formation
AFFIXATION
Affixation: formation of words by adding affixes to roots
 prefixation + suffixation
- productive (help to build new words) affixes.
- non- productive (do not help to build new words) affixes.
1. Prefixation
Classification of prefixes:
Prefixes	Meaning	Examples
un-, dis-	negative	unhappy .unlucky, uneven;dishonest, disunion,
non-, il-	 disaffection; non-stop, non-party, nonsense
im-, in-,	 illiterate, illegal, illogical; impossible, improper
ir-	 inactive, inaccurate, incapable; irregular
	 	irrational, irresponsible.
un-, dis-,	reversal,	unlock,undo,unpack;disagree,disappear, 
de-, re-	 repetition	decentralize, demobilize, decontaminate; rewrite
anti-,	opposite,	review, retell; antiwar, antiaircraft, antithesis
counter-	meaning	counter-attack,counter-weight,counter- revolution
anti-,ante	relationship	antechamber, anticipate; ex-president, ex- champion
ex- fore-,	in time,	ex-manager; foresee, forecast, forefront
pre-,	 	pre-historic,pre-war, precondition; postwar
post-	 	post-graduate, postposition;
up-, sub-	place	 upstairs, upgrade, uplift; subdivision, submarine,
trans-	subtitle; transplant, transatlantic, transcontinental
inter-,	manner	 	international, interlace, interrelation, extraordinary
extra-,	extramural, extranuclear, withstand, withdraw
with-, co-	co-exist, cooperate, co-chairman; endanger
en-, em-	enable, enclose, embed, empower, emplacement;
super-,	degree	superman, supernatural, supersonic;
over-,	overflow, overcoat, oversleep; outweigh,
out",	outcast, out-distance; undergrowth,
under-,	underestimate, undersized; ultraviolet,
ultra	ultramodern, ultraradical; polysyllabic,
poly-,bi-	quantity	polysemantic; bicycle, bilateral,
dis-,duo-	dissyllable; duodecimal, duologue,
,mono-	state	monologue, monosyllabic, monolingual.
a-,	 	evaluation	awake, afresh, anew, aloud, alike, alone,
mis-	afar, misunderstand, mislead, misbehave
+ Productive and non-productive prefixes
Non-productive a- : arise, apathy, anonymous; amphi-( on,both): amphitheatre, amphibious; ab-(from, away): abnormal, abstain; ad-(to, toward): admit, admonish; ante-anti-: antechamber, anticipate; con-, co-(with, together): confrontation, cooperate; de-
(down, away): decrease, depart; dis-, di-: disyllable, diphthong; duo- : duodecimal; en-, em- (in, make) :enact, encircle, embark, embargo; fore-: forearm, foretell; forth-:forthcoming, forthright; in-: inmate, insight; on-, (onset, onslaught), per- (thoroughly): perfect, persuade; poly-: polysyllable, polyglot; re-: retract, return; with- withstand, withdraw
+ Living (still in use) and dead (out of use) prefixes
Dead prefixes : a- :aware, awaken, ashamed; circum-(around): circumstance, circumference; op- (against): opposite, oppress
2. Suffixation
Classification of suffixes :
a. According to the parts of speech
+ Noun-forming suffixes
-age (state,place,progress,collectiveness) :village,blockage;
-al,-ial (act) :refusal,burial;
-ance,-ence (act, state, quality, condition)assistance, appearance, existence, audience;
-an,-ian (agent, follower, resident) :republican, guardian, Cambodian;
-ant,-ent (agent) :assistant, student;
-ancy,-ency (state): vacancy, emergency;
-ard (depreciatory) :drunkard, coward;
-ate (agent, function) :advocate, magistrate;
-asm,-ast (state, condition, agent) :enthusiasm, enthusiast;
-cy (state, condition, office) :bankruptcy, agency;
-dom (state, condition, collectiveness) :freedom, kingdom;
-er,-or(agent, instrument, resident) :teacher, cooker, villager, visitor;
-ee,-ey,-y (receiver/object/result of action) :employee, attomey, inquiry;
-eer (person,profession) :pioneer, engineer;
-ess (feminine) :actress, tigress;
-eur (person) : amateur;
-hood (state, condition) :childhood, neighbourhood;
-ice (act, quality, condition) :service, justice;
-ics (art, study, science) :phonetics, linguistics;
-ie,-y (diminutive) :birdie, granny
-ier (agent) -.cashier, 
-ing (art, fact, activity) : learning, feeling;
-ion,-tion (condition, state, result, act) :tension, organization, discussion;
-ism,-ist (doctrine, theory, system, result, follower, specialist) :socialism, scientist;
-ity (state) :clarity, similarity;
-let (small, young) :booklet, piglet; 
-ling (diminutive) :seedling, duckling; 
-ment (act, state, progress, result, manner) :statement, agreement, improvement;
-mony (state, condition, result) :lestimony, ceremony;
-ness (state, quality, condition, degree) goodness, darkness, seriousness;
-ology (study, system) :biology, psychology;
-or,-our (condition, quality) :error, favour;
-ry (state, condition, collectiveness) :machinery .poetry;
-ship(state, condition, quality, office, profession) :friendship, citizenship;
-ster (agent, depreciatory) :youngster, gangster;
-th (state, quality) strength, length; 
-tude (state, quality) :latitude, attitude; 
-ty (quality, state, condition) : liberty, poverty; 
-ure (act, process, state, result, rank) :pleasure, pressure;
+adjective- forming suffixes
-able, -ible (capable of, characterised by quality) :fashionable, possible;
-al, -ar, -ic, -ile (capable of, of the nature of, belonging to) :global, classical, circular, popular; necessary, secondary; domestic, historic; mobile, infantile;
"an, -ean (originated from, belonging to) :Roman, European;
-ent ,-ant (quality) :independent, different;important,distant;
-ese (resident) :Vietnamese, Chinese;
-fold (having a specified number of): twofold, tenfold;
-ish (having a small degree of like) :reddish, foolish;
-vie (related to, causing) :active, effective;
-less (without, lacking, unable) :useless, harmless; 
-ful (full of, characterised by): hopeful, careful; 
-like (resembling) :businesslike, comradelike; 
-ly (quality, character):friendly, womanly, lovely, lively, silly, sickly, motherly, cowardly, costly; 
-ous (causing, characterised by) :glorious, dangerous;
-some (causing, tending to) :troublesome, lonesome;
-ward (in the direction of) :sideward, northward;
-y (characterised by) :mighty, needy, hearty, lofty;
+ Numeral-forming suffixes
-teen (fifteen), -th (fourth), -ty (sixty)
+ Verb -forming suffixes
-ate (facilitate), 	-fy (horrify), 	-en (brighten), 	-ize (specialize),
vaccinate 	 simplify 	darken 	 legalize
liberate 	classify 	shorten 	fertilize
+ Adverb -forming suffixes
-ly (coldly), -ward (s) (upward (s), -wise (likewise), -long (sidelong), -way(s) (crossways) headlong
b. According to the lexico-grammatical meaning 
+ Abstract nouns : -age, - ance, - ence, -ancy, -ency, -ation, -doom, -cy, -hood, -ing,
-ion, -tion, -ism, -ice, -merit, -ness, -ship, -th, -ty
+ Personal nouns: -ant,-an, -ian, -ee, -ent, -er, -ier, -ist, -ey,eer
+ Feminine nouns: actress, heroine, suffragette, testatrix
+ Derogatory suffixes: drunkard, underling, gangster, simpleton
+ Diminutive suffixes: auntie, hanky, chicken, booklet 
c. Productive and non-productive suffixes: 
Non-productive: -ade, -age, -ance, -ant, -ar, -ard, -ate, -cy, -dom, -en, -eer, -ese, - ence, -ean, -fy, -hood, -ier, -ics, -me, -ic, -ian, -ice, -ive, -long, -ly, -ment, -or, -ster,
-th, -tude, -ward(s), -wise, -y
+ Living and dead suffixes :
Dead suffixes : -t (flight, height), -d (deed), -lock (wedlock)
d. Polysemantic suffixes (a great number)
-er: 	doer of the action : 	speaker, player, teacher
 	person living in a certain place: 	villager, Londoner
 	device, tool or instrument:	eraser, cooker, boiler, starter, screwdriver
-y :	 characterized by : 	windy, rainy
 	 full of, composed of: 	watery, muddy, sandy, starry
 	 intimate : 	daddy, mummy, dolly
 	 resembling : 	bushy, inky, rosy
-ment: state, quality, condition: 	amazement
 action: 	arrangement
 process, manner, 	government, development
 continuance:
III. WORD COMPOSITION
1. Definition :
A compound word (compound) consists of at least two root morphemes. The components of a compound may be either simple words, derived words or even other compound words, one of which has inflections.
e.g.(n) 	blackboards, store-keepers, mothers-in-law, passers-by
(v) 	handwash, handwashes, handwashing, handwashed
(adj) 	heart-breaking, heart-broken, middle-aged, first-rate
(adv) 	meantime, midway, wherever
(pr) 	somebody, anything, whoever
2. Criteria
a. Phonological criterion
+ Most of compounds have a stress on the first component
e.g. 'classroom, 'greenhouse, "boy-friend, to 'whitewash, to'bottlefeed, "snub- nosed, 'forget-me-not, 'mothers-in-law, 'passer-by, 'dancing-girl 
cf. free word groups : a green 'house, a dancing 'girl 
e.g. A : Look at that beautiful dancing 'girl.
 B : She's a well-known 'dancing-girl.
If you don't drive the 'bluebottle away, I will throw the blue 'bottle on your face .
+ Some compounds have double stress (even stress)
eg. 'good'egg, 'bread-and-' butter, 'gray-'green, 'easy'going, 'happy-go-'lucky, 'new-'born, "self-'control, 'All- 'Fools- 'Day, 'passenger 'train, 'merry-go- 'round.
+ Stress helps to differentiate the meaning
e.g. 'over-work (việc làm thêm), 'over-'work (việc quá sức)
'bookcase (tủ giá sách), 'book'case (bìa bọc sách)
,man'kind (loài người), 'mankind (nam giới, đàn ông)
b. Criterion of the structural integrity
Compounds are indivisible and it is impossible to insert any other words . Endings are added to the whole word.
e.g. black-markets, blackbirds, blackmail, blacklist, blacklegs, red-tape, fair- haired
c. Criterion of semantic integrity
The meaning of a compound is often idiomatic, i.e. the meaning of the whole compound is not a mere sum of the meanings of its components like in a free word group.
e.g. dirty work (dishonorable proceedings)
fuss-pot (person easily excited and nervous about trifles)
slow-coach (person who thinks and acts slowly)
chatterbox (person who talks a great deal without saying anything important)
blue-stocking woman (woman who affects literary tastes and learning)
lip-service (superficial service from the lips only)
lip-reading (interpretation of the motion of the lips)
lipstick (a stick of cosmetics for redding the lips)
d. Graphic (spelling) criterion
A compound can be spelt in three ways : with a hyphen between two components, with break and without break.
e.g. air-line, air line, airline
match-box, match box, matchbox
Few compounds have connective elements (infixes).
e.g. statesman, handicraft, savings-bank, goods-train, Anglo-Saxon
3. Classification
a. Structural classification
+ According to the structure of the immediate components
- simple stems : handbag, film-star
- derived stems : skyscraper, long-legged, ill-mannered, teenager
- abbreviated stems : maths -teacher, H-bomb, X-ray
- at least one compound stem: aircraftcarrier, waste paper basket
- v + adv : break-down, cut-back
+ According to the part of speech
- compound nouns : girlfriend, greengrocer, splashdown
- compound adjectives : red-hot, peace-loving, man-made, middle-aged
- compound verbs : to whitewash, to carpet- bomb, to streamline
- compound adverbs : whole-heartedly, shamefacedly, self-confidently
- compound prepositions : onto, into, hereafter
+ According to the type o ... words. They may be called traditional phrases.
e.g. to do one's duty, to make a mistake, to meet the requirements, a burning question, acute pain, blank took/face/expression
2. Classification based on the function in speech
Set expressions can be classified as parts of speech equivalents :
2.1 Noun equivalents :
a) Ph. fusions :
e.g. rank and file, high tea, slow coach, pretty kettle of fish, brain trust, pain in the neck (sl)
b). Ph. unities :
e.g. a man in the street, brown bread, a slip of the tongue. Jack of all trades
2.2. Verb equivalents :
a) Ph. fusions :
e.g. to show the white feather, to blow one's own trumpet, to sit above the salt
b). Ph. unities :
e.g. to clutch/ catch at a straw, to dance on a tight rope, to hold the trump card, to break the ice, to play the first/second fiddle
2.3. Adjective equivalents :
a). Ph. fusions:
e.g. above-board, spick and span, mad as a hatter, dead as a door nail
b). Ph. unities :
e.g. high and mighty, brittle as glass, cold as charity, sharp as a needle
2.4. Adverb equivalents :
a) Ph. fusions:
e.g. at sixes and sevens, (right) on the nail, with might and main, in the trice.
b). Ph. unities :
e.g. at hand, in full swing, through thick and thin, in the twinkling of an eye, far and away, (be driven) from pillar to post, (be) over head and ears.
2.5. Connecting word equivalents:
a) Prepositions: by means of , in order to, in front of, in view of, with the view to, by virtue of.
b) Conjunctions : as well as , as soon as.
2.6. Interjection equivalents:
Oh dear! Dear me ! My Goodness! Goodness gracious ! Well, I never ! My stars!
2.7. Modal particle equivalents :
After all, as it were, in fact, so to say, to be sure
They are of parenthetical character.
Some phraseological units have homonyms among free word combinations.
e.g. red tape, red - tape ; to hold a trump card, to hold a trump card
III. VERBAL COLLOCATIONS:
Verbal collocations are combinations of verb and particles :
They are treated as set expressions, i.e. the meaning of such combinations can not be easily derived from the meaning of the verb and the particle. They have idiomatic character (non-motivated) and are different from free combinations (motivated).
Verbal combinations consist of :
- phrasal verb (verb + adverbial particle): to turn down
- prepositional verb (verb + preposition particle): to take after
- prepositional phrasal verb ( verb + adverb + preposition): to put up with
1. Phrasal verbs :
a). With transitive phrasal verbs, the position of the adverbial particle is determined by the nature of the object.
- Verb + object + adverb particle / Verb + adverb particle + object.
They managed to put the fire out (extinguish) They managed to put out the fire .
- Verb+ pronoun + adverb particle.
You can't count me out (exclude)
The customer turn it down. (rejected)
- Verb + adverb particle + object (a long noun phrase)
They turned down lots of perfectly good suggestions (rejected)
b). With intransitive phrasal verbs, the adverb particle comes immediately after the verb.
He broke off as I came into the room. (stopped talking)
2. Prepositional verbs:
The prepositional particle comes immediately after the verb.
John obviously takes after his father, (resembles)
3. Prepositional phrasal verbs :
Verb + adverb particle + preposition particle
I refused to put up with his rudeness any longer, (tolerate)
The plan came in for a lot of criticism .(met)
Some of the verb-preposition combinations function transitively in one of their meanings and intransitively in another of their meanings.
Transitive 	 Intransitive
Take off shoes (remove) 	The plane will take off in ten minutes, (leave the ground)
We must break down these 	My car was broken down last night
figures accurately. 	(went out of order)
(make an analysis of)
Please, pass out these papers. 	He passed out from the heat.
(distribute) 	(fainted)
+ Comparison verbal collocations and free verb combinations:
1a He looked/up the chimney.
1b. He looked up/ the meaning of the word. (search for)
2a. He came/ across the road.
2b. He came across/ an interesting book. (find/meet by chance)
+ Compound words derived from phrasal verbs :
break down (v)
break up (v)
break out (v)
call up (v)
clear out (v)
draw back (v)
drop out (v)
hold up (v)
knock out(v)
take over (v)
try out (v)
turn out(v)
bring up (v)
break -down(n)
break -up(n)
break-out, outbreak (n)
call- up (n)
clear -out (n)
draw-back (n)
drop-out (n)
hold-up (n)
knockout(n)
takeover(n)
try-out(n)
turnout(n)
upbringing (n)
IV. PROVERBS AND QUOTATIONS
1. Proverbs
Proverbs are historically created folk quotations or sayings, which express popular wisdom, a truth or a moral lesson in a figurative, imaginary way. They have the form of a complete sentence and play the most important role in phraseological units, as:
- their lexical components are also stable, constant;
- their meaning is mostly figurative;
- they are ready-made units.
Many proverbs are peculiar only to the English language, reflecting national features, history and traditions of the English people:
e.g. He dances well to whom fortune pipes.
You can't eat your cake and have it.
The pot calls the kettle black.
To carry coal to Newcastle.
The proof of the pudding is in its eating.
Some English proverbs are of international character: they exist in many languages.
e.g. Two heads are better than one.
Don't cast pearls before swine.
The devil is not so black as he is painted.
Habit is the second nature.
Sometimes they are translation loans from other languages, mainly from French.
Appetite comes with eating (L'appetit vient en mangeant)
Besides, many set expressions are created from proverbs and sayings.
e.g. It is the early bird that catches the worm - the early bird
New broom sweeps clean - a new broom
The last straw breaks the camel's back - the last straw
2. Quotations:
Quotations are expressions coming from literature which is part and parcel of the language. There are literary quotations (created by famous writers):
Something is rotten in the state of Denmark.
Brevity is the soul of wit. (Shakespeare)
To err is human, to forgive divine- (Pope)
Fools rush in where angels fear to tread. (Pope)
and biblical quotations (taken from the Bible).
It was the last straw that broke the camel's back.
3. ClichÐs
ClichÐs are quotations that are so often used and become stale. They have lost their original expressiveness.
e.g. the acid test; the irony of fate; to stand shoulder to shoulder; swan song; tender mercies, etc.
All these above mentioned set expressions are mostly emotionally coloured and ready-made.
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Review Questions of Lexicology
I, What is morpheme and types of morphemes ?
 1, Morpheme : is the smallest indivisible meaningful language unit.
 2, Types of morphemes :
 	a, Root morphemes:
Free : eg: book, man, table, pen ..
Bound : e.g. terror, terrible, terrific, .
 b, Affixal morphemes :
Grammatical morphemes : -s , -ed, -ing ..
Derivational morphemes : 
+ Prefixes : un-,dis-,non-,
+ Suffixes : -er,-ness,-ful,
II, What is a word and types of words ?
 1, Definition :Word is an independent language unit that has both sound and spelling form and meaning. A word is capable of forming a sentence by itself.
 2, Types of words : There are three types of words :
	a, Simple word : has only one root morpheme 
	e.g. good, rain, sun 
	b, Derived word : has a root morpheme with one or more than one derivational morpheme.
	E.g. teacher, unhappy, returning ,
	c, Compound word : has at least two root morphemes with or without derivational morpheme.
	E.g., boy friend, lady-killer, mother-in-law,..
III, What is the difference between a word and a morpheme ?
Morpheme is the smallest indivisible meaningful language unit.
Word is an independent language unit that has both sound and spelling form and meaning. A word is capable of forming a sentence by itself.
IV, What is word formation and ways of word formation ?
 1, Definition : Word formation is the process of building new words from the existing material in a language according to certain patterns and formulae .
 2, Ways of formation :
 a, Affixation : 	Affixes either prefixes or suffixes 
	 e.g., un- + happy-à unhappy
	 happy + -ness à happiness.
	b, Compounding 
	Eg, black + board à blackboard 
	 Forget+ me+ not à forget-me-not
	c, Shortening:
	 + Abbreviation : - acronym : Master of Arts à M.A
 - clipping : Telephone à phone
	 Influenza à flu
 + Blending : Breakfast+Lunch à brunch
	 Smoke+fog à smog.
	d, Conversion -Adj à N 	female à a female
	 	Relative à a relative
	 - Và N 	to walkà a walk 
	 	 must à a must.
	 - Adj à V 	 cool à to cool
	 	better à to better.
	 - Nà V 	hand à to hand
	 	 air à to air.
	e, Back formation. Beggarà to beg
	 Baby-sitterà to baby- sit
	f, Sound imitation
	g, Sound and stress interchange.
 h, Name motivation : China, sandwich , watt,
V, What is affixation ? The difference between prefixation and suffixation ?
	Affixation is the formation of new words with the help of affixes. Affixes are either prefixes or suffixes, so affixation is either prefixation or suffixation .
	a, Prefixation : rarely forms new parts of speech and this is considered to be their distinctive feature as compared with suffixes. Prefixes have three groups of meaning : 
Negative meaning
- Denoting reversal or repetition of an action
Denoting space and time relationship.
b,Suffixation usually change the meaning of stem and transfer words to different parts of speech.
VI, What is compounding and how are compound words classified ?
Compounding is a formation of a new word by joining two or more word together. A compound word has at least 2 root morphemes.
	Classification:
	1, according to their structure :
simple stem compound : doorhandle, car park
Derived stem compound : lady-killer, bookseller ..
Abbreviated stem compound : maths teacher ..
Compound stem compound : Wast paper basket ..
2, according to parts of speech :
compound nouns : 
compound adjectives
compound adverbs:
compound verbs
compound prepositions
3, according to their meaning :
motivated compound (non-idiomatic ) : Its meaning can be deduced from the meaning of the components
non-motivated compound (idiomatic) : Its meaning cannot be deduced from the meaning of the components.
VII, What is the difference between a compound and a free-word group ?
In order to distinguish a compound word and a free word group we need to rely on the three following criteria :
Phonological criterion : compound words usually have stress on the first component whereas free word groups have double stress.
Structure integrity criterion : the structure of compound is stable . It is impossible to insert any element between the components.
Semantic integrity criterion : The meaning of the compound is often idiomatic i.e. is often not a mere sum of the meaning of the components.
VIII, What is shortening and types of shortening ?
Definition : Shortening is a way of building new words by leaving out some part or parts of words 
Feature : A very productive way of forming new words .
Types: 
1, Abbreviation :
acronyms are words built from the initials of several words eg. VAT, NATO ..
clipping parts of words are clipped eg : phone , flu, vet, 
	2, Blending : parts of words merged together ; eg, motel, brunch.
IX, What is the difference between affixation and back-formation ?
affixation : is the formation of new words with the help of affixes .
back formation : is the process of forming a new word by subtracting a real or supposed affixes .
the difference between affixation and back formation is that the latter is an opposite process to the former.
X.State types of meaning of words ?
There are two types of meaning found in a word : lexical and grammatical meaning 
Lexical meaning : is the realization of concepts or things : thin, hot, expensive 
Grammatical meaning : is what unites words of different lexical meanings into identical groups eg: house, student ,.. ( common,singular, count nouns )
XI. State stylistic classification of the English vocabulary ?
Stylistically English words are divided into two main layers , we have standard words and non-standard words.
 1, Standard words:
Neutral words : man, boy, father, 
Colloquial words : fellow, bike, dad,.
Bookish words : infant, lexicology,
 2, Non-standard words : 
Slangs : buck, mug, cop .
Vulgar words : dam, hell, bloody .
Dialectal words : lock= lake ..
XII.What is the difference between polysemy and homonymy ?
Semantic criterion : if there is a logical relationshiop between the meanings of a word , this word is a polysemantic word . On the contrary,if there is no a logical relationship between the meanings of a word , this word actually not one word, but one of the homonymous words. In other words , homonymous words are not semantically connected words.
Derivational criterion : Homonymous words have different derivatives 
Synonymy-based criterion : Homonymous words have different synonymy.
Combinability criterion : Homonymous words have different combinability
XIII. What is metaphor ?
Definition : is a figure of speech based on similarity between two objects or notions i.e. we call one object by the name of another because we compare these objects and find some common features between them. 
Types : 
Similarity of appearance Similarity of shape: Similarity of position: Similarity of colour: Similarity of quality: Similarity of function : Similarity of movement: 
Similarity of behaviour: Examples are shown in the texbook pages :
XIII. What is metonymy ?
	Metonymy is the transference of meaning from one object to another based on contiguity(proximity) of notions i.e. instead of the name of one object or notion we use the name of another because these objects are associated and closely related .
	Types of metonymy : based on the relation .
XIV. What is idiomatic expression and its study ?
Definition : Phraseology is the study of set expression called phraseological units.
Features : 
structural features are characteried by the stability of their structre and lexical component.
Semantic and stylistic features :the meaning of a set expression is not a mere sum of the meaning of the components. Set expressions are partially or completely non-motivated. Set expressions exist in the language and are reproduced as ready made units .Set expressions may contain diferent figures of speech such as metaphor, metonymy ,..
XV. What is the difference between idioms and proverbs/saying ?
Proverbs are set expressions which show a wisdom , a truth, or a moral lesson.
Idioms are different from proverbs in the way that they are not moral or instructive in nature