Giáo trình Basics of translation - Trường Đại học Đại Nam

 DAI NAM UNIVERSITY
 FACULTY OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES
 *****
 BASICs of translation
(2nd edition) 
 Đặng Ngọc Hướng
Vũ tuấn Anh
Nguyễn Thu Hường
HANOI – 2018
Preface
In the course of language learning in general and English study in particular, you students of English, now and then at a certain stage of learning, cannot avoid translating from Vietnamese or English (source language) into English or Vietnamese (target language): you translate/decode the meaning of words or sentences in listening and/or speaking, you translate different texts as required by study subjects or by examination at university (and you may also translate documents as a kind of service or occupation in the future!). For these reasons, we teachers have based ourselves on teaching experience and translation-related materials available to design the book Basics of Translation in order to help you understand basically about translation now so that you can take deeper insight into the subject in your study course at a higher level. 
The book, designed from a practical perspective, comprises 6 lessons allocated as follows:
Lesson 1: Basic features of translation 	
Lesson 2: Elements of translation and differences between translation and interpreting. 	
Lesson 3: Types of translation	
Lesson 4: Word-related issues in translation	
Lesson 5: Syntax-related issues in translation	
Lesson 6: Process of translation + Review	
Sequenced in a consistent style, each lesson begins with a brief introduction of the subject matters (home reading) followed by Questions for discussion (classroom work) which is intended to consolidate the knowledge you have obtained from the lesson. Then comes Practice work (classroom & home work). These exercises are aimed to put you in real situations so that you can apply your theoretical knowledge about translation to translation practice. At the end of the book, in order to facilitate your initial understanding about the subject some of the basic terms are given, which aims to provide you with their equivalents you may not know yet.
As has been said above, this book is just a starting point in your translation study. We do hope that you benefit from the book and succeed in work.
Hanoi, 2018
Contents
Lesson 1: Basic features of translation ..........................................	1
	What is the theory of translation?...............................	1
	Definitions of translation ...........................................	2
	The nature of translation ...........................................	4
	Types of equivalents of correlated units .....................	9
	What does the translator do? .......................................	12
Lesson 2: Elements of translation and differences between 
 translation and interpreting. ..............................................	18
Elements of translation .............................................	18
Interpreting vs translating .........................................	21
Lesson 3: Types of translation ...........................................................	28
	General classification ..................................................	28
.	Practical types of translation ......................................	29
Lesson 4: Word-related issues in translation ..................................... 	36
	Word structure ...........................................................	36
	Word categories ........................................................	37
	Word meaning ...........................................................	39
	Meaning and concept ................................................	41
	Words in combination ...............................................	45
	Proper names .............................................................	47
Cultural words ...........................................................	50
Lesson 5: Syntax-related issues in translation ..................................	58	
	Sentence structure .....................................................	58
	Proposition ................................................................	69
	Linguistic transposition ............................................	70
	Modulation ...............................................................	73
	Reformulation ..........................................................	74
	Style and register .......................................................	74
Lesson 6: Process of translation .......................................................	81
References ......................................................................................	91
Glossary ..............................................................................................	93
Abbreviations
A: 	adverbial
Adj: 	adjective
AdjP: 	adjective phrase
Adv: 	adverb
AdvP: 	adverb phrase
AT: 	adaptation translation 
C: 	complement
Conj.: 	conjunction
CT: 	communicative translation
det :	determinative
DP: 	determinative phrase
FrT: 	free translation 
FT:	faithful translation
GT: 	gist translation
LiT: 	literal translation
LT: 	language of translation
Mod:	modifier
N: 	noun
NP: 	noun phrase
O: 	object (Oi: indirect object, Od: direct object)
P: 	predicate
Prep: 	preposition
PrepP: 	prepositional phrase
RL:	receptor language
S: 	subject
SL: 	source language
SeT: 	semantic translation
ST: 	source text
T: 	translator
TL: 	target language
TrT: 	translated text
TT:	target text
V: 	verb
VP: 	verb phrase
WT: 	word-for-word translation
Lesson 1
BASIC FEATURES OF TRANSLATION
OBJECTIVES
At the end of the lesson, you will be to
identify the meaning of the term ‘theory of translation’ and ‘translation studies’
realize the basic features of translation
understand the nature of translation
identify the relationship of meaning, style and culture
identify different kinds of equivalence and equivalents of correlated units of translation
understand about the tasks of the translator
I. WHAT IS THE THEORY OF TRANSLATION?
It is assumed that before the 1970s the term ‘translation’ used to be thought of particularly as a discipline in the process of foreign language learning; it was rarely studied for its own sake. What is generally understood as translation involves the rendering of a source language text into the target text, ensuring that (1) the surface meaning of the two will be approximately similar and (2) the structures of the source language will be preserved as closely as possible but not so closely that the target language structure will be seriously distorted. The instructor can then hope to measure the students’ linguistic competence by means of the target language products. But there the matter stops (Susan Bassnett, 2002). In the light of this direction, the theory of translation involves normative approaches, putting a strong emphasis on prescribing to translators how to and how not to translate.
Together with the term ‘translation theory’ or ‘theory of translation’, since the mid-1970s the name ‘Translation Studies’ has been adopted to indicate that the study of translation is not just a minor branch of comparative literary study, nor yet a specific area of linguistics, but a vastly complex field with many far-reaching fields: stylistics, literary history, linguistics, semiotics, aesthetics, and practical applications in translation. Translation Studies, indeed a discipline in its own right, aims to produce a comprehensive theory which can be used as a guideline for the production of translations, and during the actual translation process the problems encountered by those working in the field will enrich their practical experience for theoretical discussions, and then increased theoretical perceptiveness will be put to use in the translation of texts.
 	Practically, whether the study of translation is termed as ‘Translation Theory’ or ‘Translation Studies’ it culminates with the theory on proper principles of translation. This theory, based on a solid foundation on understanding of how languages work, translation theory recognizes that different languages encode meaning in differing forms, yet guides translators to find appropriate ways of preserving meaning, while using the most appropriate forms of each language. Translation theory includes principles for translating figurative language, dealing with lexical mismatches, rhetorical questions, inclusion of cohesion markers, and many other topics crucial to good translation.
Basically there are two competing theories of translation. In one, the predominant purpose is to express as exactly as possible the full force and meaning of every word and phrase in the original, and in the other the predominant purpose is to produce a result that does not read like a translation at all, but rather moves in its new dress with the same ease as in its native rendering. In the hands of a good translator neither of these two approaches can ever be entirely ignored.
II. DEFINITIONS OF TRANSLATION
Since antiquity (3000BC-Newmark 1986), translation has become popular in language learning and daily life. So far, there have been many definitions of translation, and the following are some of them:
1. Translation, by dictionary definition, consists of changing from one state or form to another, to turn into one’s own or another’s language. (The Merriam-Webster Dictionary, 1974). Translation is basically a change of form. When we speak of the form of a language, we are referring to the actual words, phrases, sentences, paragraphs, etc. The forms are referred to as the surface structure of a language. It is the structural part of language which is actually seen in print or heard in speech. In translation the form of the source language is replaced by the form of the receptor/target language. But how is this change accomplished? What determines the choices of form in the translation?
2. Translation is the expression in another language (target language) of what has been expressed in one language (source language), preserving semantic and stylistic equivalences. 
3. Translation is the replacement of a representation of a text in one language by a representation of an equivalent text in a second language. 
4. Translation is rendering a written text into another language in a way that the author intended the text. 
5. Translators are concerned with written texts. They render written texts from one language into another language. Translators are required to translate texts which arrange from simple items including birth certificates or driving licenses to more complex written materials such as articles in journals of various kinds, business contracts and legal documents.” 
6. Translating may be defined as the process of transforming signs or representations into other signs or representations. If the originals have some significance, we generally require that their images also have the same significance, or, more realistically, as nearly the same significance as we can get. Keeping significance invariant is the central problem in translating between natural languages.
7. Translation may be defined as follows: the replacement of textual material in one language (SI.) by equivalent material in another language (TL). 
8. One of the most important factors determining the purpose of a translation is the addressee, who is the intended receiver or audience of the target text with their culture-specific world-knowledge, their expectations and their communicative needs. Every translation is directed at an intended audience, since to translate means “to produce a text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addressees in target circumstances". 
9. Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source-language message. 
 10. Translation leads from a source-language text to a target-language text which is as close an equivalent as possible and presupposes an understanding of the content and style of the original. 
11. When the translation is an end in itself, in the sense of simply seeking to extend an originally monolingual communicative process to include receivers in another language, then it must be conceived as an integral communicative performance, which without any extratextual additions (notes, explanations etc.) provides an insight into the cognitive meaning, linguistic form and communicative function of the SL text. 
12. The linguistic approaches basically saw translating as a code-switching operation. With the more pragmatic reorientation at the beginning of the 1970s, the focus shifted from the word or phrase to the text as a unit of translation, but the fundamental linguistic trend was not broken. Equivalence as a basic concept or even constituent of translation was never really questioned. 
13. The ideal translation would be one "in which the aim in the TL [target language] is equivalence as regards the conceptual content, linguistic form and communicative function of a SL [source-language] text". The requirement of equivalence thus has the following form: quality (or qualities) X in the SL text must be preserved. This means that the source-language content, form, style, function, etc. must be preserved, or at least that the translation must seek to preserve them as far as possible. 
Translation has its own excitement, its own interest. A satisfactory translation is always possible, but a good translator is never satisfied with it. It can usually be improved. There is no such thing as a perfect, ideal or 'correct' translation. A translator is always trying to extend his knowledge and improve his means of expression; he is always pursuing facts and words. He works on four levels: translation is first a science, which entails the knowledge and verification of the facts and the language that describes them - here, what is wrong, mistakes of truth, can be identified; secondly, it is a skill, which calls for appropriate language and acceptable usage; thirdly, an art, which distinguishes good from undistinguished writing and is the creative, the intuitive, sometimes the inspired, level of the translation; lastly, a matter of taste, where argument ceases, preferences are expressed, and the variety of meritorious translations is the reflection of individual differences. The study of translation can set up a framework of reference for an activity that serves as a means of communication, a transmitter of culture, a technique (one of many, to be used with discretion) of language learning, and a source of personal pleasure.
III. THE NATURE OF TRANSLATION
 	According to Nida (1982) translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source-language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style. But this relatively simple statement requires careful evaluation of several seemingly contradictory elements.
3.1. Reproducing the Message 	
 	Translating must aim pr ... ..............................
 - Purpose? .....................................................................................................
 - Possible language problems? (underline them in the text) ....................
B. Drafting:
 1. ...........................................................................................................
 2. ...........................................................................................................
 3. ...........................................................................................................
 4. ...........................................................................................................
 5. ...........................................................................................................
 6. ...........................................................................................................
C. Comparing and editing the three translated sentences below with the original (Suggest your translations after giving comments or/and reasons for your corrections)
 1. Tôi đã tưởng tượng rằng không khí bẩn xung quanh chúng ta bằng một cách nào đó thoát vào tầng bình lưu, và không khí mới tiếp tục tràn vào - giống như điều thường xảy ra khi chúng ta mở một cửa sổ sau một bữa tiệc.
 2. Có lẽ mọi trẻ em ở lớp 6 và trên nữa biết điều này; nhưng tôi nghi ngờ rằng một trong số một trăm người lớn biết được sự thực vật lý cơ bản này.
 3. Chúng ta không thể không làm những điều (chúng ta) đã làm.
IV. Translate the full text below into Vietnamese
 Barack Obama was as surprised as most of America, and much of the world, to be woken before dawn and told he had won the Nobel Peace Prize after just nine months in office and while he is deciding whether to escalate the war in Afghanistan. The Nobel Committee said it chose Obama “for his extraordinary efforts to strengthen international diplomacy and cooperation between peoples” and for creating “a new international climate”.
 “Only very rarely has a person to the same extent as Obama captured the world’s attention and given its people hope for a better future,” the Committee said in its citation. “His diplomacy is founded in the concept that those who are to lead the world must do so on the basis of values and attitudes that are shared by the majority of the world’s population.”
V. Translate the full text below into English, practising the five-step process of translation as described above.
 Mỗi năm cứ vào tiết cuối hè sang thu, nắng nhạt đi, gió may se se lạnh, là lòng tôi lại xao xuyến một nỗi nhớ thiết tha. Năm nào cũng vậy. 
 Trước phòng viết của tôi, mặt biển Hắc Hải lặng gương. mảnh trăng như chiếc lược vàng, cài ngang bóng thông trên đỉnh núi. Hương hồng, không khí như bằng hương hồng, bao quanh cửa sổ. Cảnh đẹp, nhưng buồn vì vắng những người thân, vì xa nước. Tôi nhớ đến bến sông Thương những đêm thu nước cũng lặng gương, cũng mảnh trăng như chiếc lược vàng cài bóng thông xa. Chỉ khác đất trời sông Thương đượm hương hoa ngâu, hương hoa lý. Hương mùa thu vàng quê hương. Rồi tôi nhớ... Tôi đã mơ ước, đã thiết tha sống bằng tưởng tượng, và đã nhờ dòng sông quê đưa đi xa, thật xa. 
 (Anh Thơ- 2002)
(Suggested words: cuối... đầu: at the turn of, xao xuyến: to get flurried, phòng viết: study, lặng gương: peacefully glittering, cây thông: pine tree, hương hồng: rosy scent, hương hoa ngâu: aglaia scent, hương hoa thiên lý: pergularia scent) 
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REFERENCES
 1. Al-Shabab,O.S. (1994). Interpretation and the Language of Translation: Creativity and Conventions in Translation. Beirut, Lebanon.America Inc.
2. Baker, M. (1992). In Other Words. A Coursebook on Translation. London: Routledge 
3. Bassnett, S. (2001). Translation Studies. New York: Methuen & Co.Ltd.
4. Bosco, G. Translation Techniques. www.interproinc.com
5. Christiane, N. Translating as a Purposeful Activity. Manchester, UK & Northampton MA.
6. Cory, H. (1999). Advanced Writing with English in Use. Oxford University Press.
7. Dự, Nguyễn Hữu. (2003). Tuyển tập truyện cười-Tập II. Nhà xuất bản Đồng Nai. 
8. Duff, A. (1989). Translation . OUP 
9. Gaddis, R.M. Translation Spectrum - Essays in Theory and Practice. State University of New York Press.
 10. Hướng, Đặng Ngọc. (2010). Danh ngữ tiếng Anh - Đặc trưng cú pháp-ngữ nghĩa thành tố. Nxb KH-XH, Hà Nội.
11. Koller, W. (1979). Einführung in die Übersetzungswissenschaft. Heidelberg: Quelle and Meyer. 
12. Larson, M.L. (1998). Meaning-based Translation. University Press of America Inc.
13. Lộc, Vũ. (2010). Từ loại tiếng Việt và vấn đề chú thích từ loại trong từ điển. Ngôn ngữ & Đời sống, Hội ngôn ngữ học Việt Nam. Số 8, 178-2010.
14. Newmark, P. (1986). Approach to Translation. Prentica Hall
 15. Newmark, P. (1988). A Textbook of Translation. Prentice Hall International
16. Nida, A. E. (1982). The Theory and Practice of Translation. The Netherland: E.J.Brill, Leiden
17. Nida, E. and Taber, C.R. (1969). The Theory and Practice of Translation. Leiden: E.J. Brill. 
18. Nigel.A. Translation, Linguistics, Culture - French-English Handbook. Multilingual Matters LTD. Clevedon • Buffalo • Toronto.
19. Oxford Collocations Dictionary for Learners of English (2002). Oxford University Press.
20. Oxford Idioms Dictionary for Learners of English. 2001. Oxford University Press.
21. Pym, A. (2010). Exploring Translation Theories. London and New York: Routledge. 
22. Robinson, D. (1998). Becoming a Translator. Routledge-London
23. SaigonBook. (2002). Tales from Shakespeare. Danang Publishing House 
24. Samuelson-Brown, G. (2004). A Practical Guide for Translators. Multilingual Matters L
25. Setton, R. (1999). Simultaneous Interpretation: A Cognitive - Pragmatic Analysis. Benjamins
26. Snell-Hornby, M. (1988). Translation studies: an integrated approach. University of Zurich
27. Sofer, M. (1999). The Translation's Handbook. Schreiber Publishing
28. Tiến, Lê Hùng. Nghiên cứu dịch thuật và những khuynh hướng nghiên cứu ngôn ngữ. Tạp chí KHOA HỌC ĐHQG - NGOẠI NGỮ T.XIX Số 1, 2006.
29. Tirkkonen- Condit, S. (2000). Tapping and mapping the Processes of Translation and Interpreting. Benjamins
30. Translation 1, 2, 3. Đại học Ngoại Thương (FTU) 2005
31. Viện Ngôn ngữ học. (1993). Từ điển Anh-Việt, Nxb.TP Hồ Chí Minh.
32. Wadensjo, C. (1998). Interpreting as Interaction. Longman
33. Watts, R. J. (2004). Translation - An Advanced Resourse Book. Routledge
34. Wilss, W. Translation and Interpreting in the 20th Century. John Benjamins Publishing company, Amsterdam/Philadelphia.
 GLOSSARY
A
a complete match: sự đối hợp hoàn toàn
a wealth of: vô khối
abstraction: ý niệm trừu tượng
academic: thuộc học vấn
adjective phrase: ngữ tính từ
adjustment: sự điều chỉnh
adverb phrase: ngữ trạng từ
adverb: trạng từ
adverbial: trạng ngữ
agent: tác nhân
alternative: phương án lựa chọn
ambiguity: sự mập mờ
approximation: mức áng chừng, xấp xỉ
argument: lí lẽ, luận chứng
article: mạo từ
as with: giống, cũng như
aspect form: dạng thức
associative: có tính gắn kết
astray: lạc lối, chệch hướng
attribute: đặc tính/tính ngữ
auxiliary verb: trợ động từ
B
bilingual: song ngữ
block: khối
boundary: ranh giới
C
categorization: sự phân loại
category: phạm trù, loại
certain languages: một số ngôn ngữ 
chunk: chuỗi
class: loại, hạng 
classifier: loại từ
clause: cú (đọan), mệnh đề
closed set: lớp từ đóng
cognitive: tri nhận
coherent: mạch lạc
collocation: cụm từ cố định
colloquialism: tính thông tục
complement: bổ ngữ
complexity: sự phức tạp
component: thành tố
concept cluster: nhóm khái niệm
concept: khái niệm
concisely: một cách ngắn gọn
conference interpreting: dịch hội nghị
confrontation: sự đối mặt
conjunction: liên từ
connotation: nghĩa liên tưởng
consecutive interpreting: dich đuổi
consolence: sự an ủi
containment: giới hạn
coordinating: kết hợp
core: lõi
correlation: sự liên kết, tương quan
countable: đếm được
criteria: tiêu chí
D
definite: xác định
deletion: sự xóa / bỏ đi
demonstrative: chỉ định
denotation: nghĩa biểu đạt
derivational: phái sinh
determinative phrase: ngữ định từ
determinative: định từ
determiner: định ngữ
discourse: diễn ngôn
distinction: sự phân biệt
distinctive: rõ ràng
dynamic: vận động / năng động
E
economy: sự tiết kiệm
ellipted: bị tỉnh lược
entity: thực thể
equivalent: tương đương 
exaggeration: sự phóng đại
exegesis: sự luận bình
explicit: hiển ngôn
extensive: rộng
extreme: thái cực
F
faithful: trung thành
figurative: (nghĩa) bóng
figures of speech: hình thức tu từ
finite form: dạng chia (của động từ)
formulation: việc hình thành
further: thêm
G
generic term: ngôn từ có nghĩa chung chung
gerund: danh động từ
gist translation: dịch tóm tắt
gist: ý chính
guarantee: sự đảm bảo
H
head: chính tố / đầu tố
I
(in)animate: (bất) động vật
identical: giống
idiom: thành ngữ
idiosyncrasy: phong cách riêng
image: hình ảnh
implicit: hàm ẩn
indefinite: không xác định
indispensible: không thể thiếu được
infinitive: dạng nguyên thể
interjection: thán từ
intermediate: ở giữa, mức giữa
intermingling: sự pha trộn
interpretation: việc hiểu / lý giải
interpreting: phiên dịch, thông ngôn
interrogative: nghi vấn
intertextual: liên ngôn bản
intransitive: nội động 
invariant: không thay đổi
isolated: riêng biệt, đơn lập
italics: chữ in nghiêng
J
jargon: biệt ngữ 
journal: tạp chí chuyên ngành
L
language mediation: chuyển ngữ 
layer of meaning: lớp nghĩa
lexical: thuộc về từ vựng
lexicon: từ vựng
liaison interpreting: dịch giao tiếp
linguistic approach: cách tiếp cận ngôn ngữ
literal: (nghĩa) đen
M
mechanically: về mặt cơ học
metaphor: ẩn dụ
misleading: lừa dối, sai lệch
mismatch: sự không đối hợp
mobility: tính cơ động
modal verb: động từ tình thái
modifier: điều biến tố
modulation: phép chuyển nghĩa
monolingual: đơn ngữ
morpheme: hình vị
morphology: hình thái học
multilingual: đa ngôn ngữ
N
negation: sự phủ định
nominal: ngữ danh tính
non-finite: dạng không chia
non-inflectional: không biến hình
norm: tiêu chí
note: điều lưu ý
noun phrase: danh ngữ
nuance: sắc thái
nuclear: hạt nhân
numeral: số từ
O
object: vật thể
obligatory: bắt buộc
optional: tùy ý / không bắt buộc
origin: gốc / nguồn gốc
overlap: sự chồng / gối lên
P
parallel linearity: tuyến tính song song
part of speech: từ loại
participant: tham tố
participle: phân từ
passive (voice): (lối nói) bị động
person: ngôi
personal: nhân xưng
personification: (phép) nhân cách hóa
phrasal preposition: giới từ ngữ dạng
phrasal verb: động từ ngữ dạng
phrase: ngữ đoạn (ngữ)
polyseme: từ đa nghĩa
polysemy/homonomy: hiện tượng đa nghĩa / đồng âm
position: vị trí
pre-antiquity: tiền cổ đại
predicate: vị ngữ
prefix: tiền tố
preliminary: sơ bộ
prepositional phrase: ngữ giới từ
prevailing: phổ biến
priority: sự ưu tiên
project: đề tài
proposition: nhận định
prospective translator: dịch giả tương lai
puzzle: vấn đề hóc búa
Q
quality: đặc tính
quantitative: định lượng
R
receptor language: ngôn ngữ nhận
redundancy: sự thừa
reference: sự nói tới/tham chiếu
reformulation: tái tạo ý tưởng
register: văn phong, ngôn từ
respect (in this respect): phương diện
restatement/paraphrasing: việc nói lại
rewrite: cái được viết lại
rhetoric tradition: thói quen tu từ
root: gốc
roughly speaking: nói nôm na, phỏng chừng
S
scarcity: sự khan hiếm
secondary: phụ
section: phần
semantic: thuộc về ngữ nghĩa
sense of humour: tính/khiếu hài hước
sense: nét nghĩa
sentence: câu
sequential: theo thứ tự
set phrase: ngữ cố định
setting: bối cảnh
simile: phép so sánh
simultaneous interpreting: dịch đồng thời, dịch cabin
skewing: sự đan chéo nghĩa
source language: ngôn ngữ nguồn/gốc
spatializingcomponent: yếu tố bao quát hóa
specialized: chuyên dụng
specifically: cụ thể là / đặc biệt là
state: trạng thái
static: tĩnh
status: cương vị
stilted: khô cứng
striking: nổi bật
stylistic: thuộc về phong cách
subject complement: bổ chủ ngữ
subjective / objective: chủ quan / khách quan
submission: việc giao nộp
subordinate clause: cú/mệnh đề phụ
subsidiary: phụ, phụ trợ
suffix: hậu tố
surface structure: cấu trúc bề mặt
synonym/antonym: từ đồng nghĩa/trái nghĩa
syntax: cú pháp
T
target language: ngôn ngữ đích
terminology: thuật ngữ học
text-to-be: văn bản sau này
that is: nghĩa là
the affected: cái, người bị ảnh hưởng
theme: chủ điểm/chủ đề
thesaurus: từ điển đồng nghĩa
time lapse: dãn cách thời gian
to a great degree: với mức độ lớn
to account for: giải thích cho
to agree in person: phù hợp về ngôi
to base oneself on: dựa vào
to be addressed to: đượcgửi/hướng tới
to be applied to: được áp dụng vào
to be apt to: dễ có xu hướng 
to be aware of: ý thức được / biết
to be bound to: bị buộc vào/gắn với
to be distorted: bị bóp méo
to be made up of: được hình thành bởi
to be packaged: bị đóng gói
to be posited between: nằm ở
to be restricted to: bó hẹp ở
to be slighted: bị coi nhẹ
to call for: đòi hỏi
to care for: quan tâm tới
to classify: phân loại
to coincide: đồng nhất, trùng với
to concern: liên quan (tới)
to consult: tham khảo
to convey: truyền đạt
to correspond to: ứng với
to deduce: suy diễn
to define: xác định
to denote: biểu đạt
to determine: hạn định
to edit: biên tập
to eliminate: xóa bỏ
to encode: mã hóa
to exploit: sử dụng
to facilitate: hỗ trợ
to fix the meaning: xác định nghĩa
to formulate: đề ra/diễn đạt
to get underway: được thực hiện
to guard against: đề phòng
to identify: nhận diện
to implement: thực hiện
to imply: ám chỉ
to induce: xui, xúi giục
to interpret: hiểu / lý giải
to justify: chứng minh
to make no sense: không có nghĩa
to manipulate: thao tác
to modify: thay đổi/bổ nghĩa
to monitor: điều khiển
to notice: nhận ra / thấy
to perceive: nhận thức
to precede: đứng trước
to propose: đề xuất
to recommend: khuyến nghị
to refer to: nói tới
to reflect: phản ánh
to render: dịch
to represent: đại diện/biểu thị
to resolve: giải quyết
to restrict: hạn chế
to reveal: để lộ
to reword: viết / diễn đạt lại
to sequence: xắp xếp theo thứ tự
to shift: chuyển
to sound: nghe có vẻ
to supplement: bổ sung
to take into consideration: xem xét
to take place: xảy ra
to tighten up: nắm chặt
to unpack: mở 
tone: giọng điệu
top-down: từ tổng quát đến cụ thể
transitive: ngoại động
translationese: dịch ngớ ngẩn
transposition: phép chuyển dạng/giao hoán
treasure: của quý
U
umbrella term: từ/thuật ngữ bao trùm
uncongenial: không thích hợp
underlying meaning: nghĩa ẩn chứa
unnatural: không tự nhiên
usage: việc sử dụng
V
vary: khác nhau, thay đổi
verbal noun: danh (từ có gốc) động từ
verbalizing: việc diễn đạt bằng ngôn từ
verbless clause: cú/mệnh đề không động từ
via: qua, theo đường
vice versa/the other way round: ngược lại
viva voce: thi vấn đáp
vs, v (versus): đối lập, ngược với
W
word-for-word translation: dịch từ đối từ
workload: khối lượng công việc
Hanoi, 2018